Kloosterhuis, J. In September 1743, Frederick held the first fall maneuver (Herbstbung). [36] By the end of Frederick's reign, the army had become an integral part of Prussian society. The system of moving units separately and concentrating as an army before a battle resulted in more efficient supply and lower vulnerability to modern firepower. John Sigismunds grandson Frederick William of Brandenburg, the Great Elector (reigned 164088), obtained by military intervention in the Swedish-Polish War of 165560 and by diplomacy at the Peace of Oliva (1660) the ending of Polands suzerainty over Ducal Prussia. (2004). In return for political support from the nobles, the monarchs granted them greater privileges on their estates and greater initiative on the battlefield. .css-16c7pto-SnippetSignInLink{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;}Sign In, Copyright 2023 Dow Jones & Company, Inc. All Rights Reserved, 50% off + free delivery on any order with DoorDash promo code, Flash Deals Friday! At a state level, Prussia was obviously anti-Polish. Prussian troops under the leadership of Blcher and Gneisenau proved vital at the Battles of Leipzig (1813) and Waterloo (1815). He raised the army to 80,000 men (equivalent to 4 percent of the population) and geared the whole organization of the state to the military machine. The Prussian cavalry under Schulenburg had performed poorly at Mollwitz; the cuirassiers, originally trained on heavy horses, were subsequently retrained on more maneuverable, lighter horses. It has a military that rotates between exerting direct control via coups (1958, 1977 and 1999) and indirect control through its far-reaching influence over domestic and especially foreign policy. Patients can obtain immediate substance use disorder care and mental health treatment by calling 1-844-5-RCA-NOW (844-572-2669) with complimentary transportation provided in most cases. The Enlightened Soldier: Scharnhorst and the Militdrische Gesellschaft in Berlin, 18011805, New York. His autocratic temperament and his fanatical addiction to work found expression in complete absolutism. Absolutism in Action: Frederick William I and the Government of East Prussia, 17091730, doctoral thesis, University of St Andrews. Through participation in the Second Northern War, he further acquired much of western Pomerania (1720). Their social organization was loosealthough some elements of stratified society can be tracedand they were pagans. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. Likewise, if you have any tips, critiques or advice please do comment as I'd be pleased to read them. You have to remember that "Prussia" was a rather Frankenstein of a state. Recovery Centers of America Under the leadership of Moltke, the Prussian Army then proved victorious over France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). William Frederick the Elector of Brandenburg-Prussia was responsible for it. He was succeeded by his son, Frederick William III (17971840), who involved Prussia in the disastrous Fourth Coalition. 16881740, Konig in Preu/3en; eine Biographie, Berlin. [42] The Krmpersystem was also the beginning of short-term (3 years') compulsory service in Prussia, as opposed to the long-term (5 to 10 years') conscription previously used since the 1650s. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Note: If Brandenburg has no more than 3 loans before 1466 they are likely to get an event to buy these provinces from the Teutonic Order for 100, in which case there is no need to conquer them. This is maybe my Dutch ancestry but ducats make the world go round. Preuisches Kantonsystem und lndliche Gesellschaft: Das Beispiel des mittleren Kammerdepartements, in Krieg und Frieden: Militar und Gesellschaft in der fruhen Neuzeit, ed. [15], Punishments were draconian[16] in nature, such as running the gauntlet,[17] and despite the threat of hanging, many peasant conscripts deserted when they could. Hohenzollern Brandenburg-Prussia had primarily relied upon Landsknecht mercenaries during the Thirty Years' War, in which Brandenburg was devastated. The Great Elector, New York. March 01, 2023 17:13 ET By the Second Treaty of Toru (1466) the Polish crown acquired direct sovereignty over the Teutonic Orders former possessions to the west of the lower Vistula River, together with the Kulmerland (or Chemno district) and Ermland (Warmia) to the east; and that part of Prussia east of the Vistula River (i.e., East Prussia) was left to the order only on condition that the grand, or high, master should hold it as fief of the Polish crown. Accordingly, he inferred that the essence of strategy lay in arrangements for the separation of the corps for marching and their concentration in time for battle. Many troops were disloyal, such as mercenaries or those acquired through impressment, while troops recruited from the canton system displayed strong regional, and nascent national pride. Ducal Prussia and the Kingdom of Prussia, to 1786, The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic period, Prussia - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), Prussia - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). Prussia is the strongest trade power in the Canton trade node. The remainder were foreign (both German and non-German) volunteers or conscripts. Frederick preemptively attacked his enemies with an army of 150,000, beginning the Seven Years' War. The new king trained and drilled the army relentlessly, focusing on their flintlock muskets' firing speed and formation maneuverability. Voltaire. Frederick then rushed eastward to Silesia, where Austria had defeated the Prussian army under the Duke of Bevern. Dismayed by the populace's indifferent reaction to the 1806 defeats, the reformers wanted to cultivate patriotism within the country. Silesia, a rich province with many flourishing towns and an advanced economy, was an important acquisition for Prussia. Hailed by Voltaire as the philosopher king personifying the Enlightenment and its ideal of peace, Frederick astonished Europe within seven months of his accession to the throne by invading Silesia in December 1740. All Recovery Centers of America locations admit new patients 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 365 days a year, and complimentary, discreet transportation and intervention services are included in the cost of treatment. The combined brigades were supplemented with three brigades of artillery.[49]. For non-personal use or to order multiple copies, please contact ", Trumpener, Ulrich. The Royal Prussian Army (17011919, German: Kniglich Preuische Armee) served as the army of the Kingdom of Prussia. In: Mortimer, G. (eds) Early Modern Military History, 14501815. Clicking on a mission icon leads to the appropriate table row. The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire, London. [54], The Prussian General Staff, which developed out of meetings of the Great Elector with his senior officers[3] and the informal meeting of the Napoleonic Era reformers, was formally created in 1814. War, State, and Society in Wurttemberg, 16771793, Cambridge. However, the Prussian artillery was effective against the French, who were frequently flanked or surrounded by the mobile Prussians. For the third year, RCA is recognized as having multiple sites atop Newsweeks 2022 Americas Best Addiction Centers rankings for excellence. Humana Military offers healthcare services to more than six million active duty and retired military personnel and their families in the eastern United States. 1995. B.R. Smith, L.V. Stine, J.E. The Prussia army was created during the thirty years war. Jahrhundert, in Krieg und Frieden: Militr und Gesellschaft in der fruhen Neuzeit, ed. We've now covered most of Germany's modern history, but there is an obvious piece missing - the Industrial age, when Germany truly. Kathe, H. 1976. Unfortunately, that makes us look weak. The government submitted Roon's army reform bill in February 1860. | Source: In Prussia, pigtails replaced the full-bottomed wigs common at most German courts. Frederick used oblique order to great success at Hohenfriedberg and later Leuthen. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. The original Prussians, mainly hunters and cattle breeders, spoke a language belonging to the Baltic group of the Indo-European language family. Garrisons were also slowly augmented in Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia. For centuries, the House of . In the 13th century, however, the Prussians were conquered and Christianized by the German-speaking knights of the Teutonic Order, which had been awarded Prussian lands by the Polish duke Conrad of Mazovia for help against Prussian incursions. While some Prussian commanders acquitted themselves well, such as L'Estocq at Eylau, Gneisenau at Kolberg, and Blcher at Lbeck, they were not enough to reverse the defeats of Jena-Auerstedt. Newsweeks 2022 Americas Best Addiction Centers. During Napoleon's retreat from Russia in 1812, Yorck independently signed the Convention of Tauroggen with Russia, breaking the Franco-Prussian alliance. At the end of 1848, Frederick William finally issued the Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia. [94], The Prussian Army acquired a reputation for strict and savage military discipline.[95][96][97]. Scott, H.M. 1994. The Genesis of German Conservatism, Princeton. After a series of complicated formations and deployments hidden from the Austrians, the Prussians successfully struck their enemy's flank at Leuthen, with Friedrich once again directing the battle; the Austrian position in the province collapsed, resulting in a Prussian victory even more impressive than the one at Rossbach. B.R. War of the Bavarian SuccessionFrench Revolutionary Wars. His thesis can be summed up by two statements, one famous and one less so, translated into English as No plan of operations extends with certainty beyond the first encounter with the enemy's main strength (no plan survives contact with the enemy). The General Staff was camouflaged as a non-descript Truppenamt (troop office), while the War Academy was replaced with decentralized divisional schools. But where 20 or 30 per cent was the norm elsewhere, the Prussian army regularly accounted for as much as three-quarters of public expenditure and that in times of profound peace. During their reign, the Prussian army grew to number 200000 men out of a population of 2.5 million. Prussia was effectively abolished in 1932, and officially abolished in 1947. Fann, W. 1990. The Prussians had relied on mercenaries to do their fighting but they could be unreliable. Liberals resented the usage of the army in essentially police actions. Unlike the Austrians, the French had the powerful Chassepot rifle, which outclassed the Prussian needle gun. In political, social and cultural terms as well, Prussia was generally recognized by its neighbours as centring on its army to a degree unknown elsewhere. Scharnhorst advocated adopting the leve en masse, the universal military conscription used by France. Friedrich Wilhelm der Gro/3e Kurfiirst: der Sieger von Fehrbellin, Berlin. The Finance Minister, Patow, abruptly withdrew the bill on 5 May and instead simply requested a provisional budgetary increase of 9 million thalers, which was granted. [7] Field Marshals of Brandenburg-Prussia included Derfflinger, John George II, Spaen and Sparr. RCAs expert staff is here to help anyone suffering from the disease of addiction.. Dow Jones Reprints at 1-800-843-0008 or visit www.djreprints.com. The overriding objective of Frederick's rule was to increase the power of the state. [52] The Franco-Prussian treaty of 1812 forced Prussia to provide 20,000 troops to Napoleon's Grande Arme, first under the leadership of Grawert and then under Yorck. For the Prussians, who advocated offensive operations, infantry attacks would risk becoming sacrificial assaults. Frederick immediately disbanded the expensive Potsdam Giants and used their funding to create seven new regiments and 10,000 troops. These changes led to a Prussian victory at Chotusitz (1742) in Bohemia, and Austria conceded Silesia to Frederick with the Peace of Breslau.[29]. Although Moltke considered Prince Frederick Charles' march through Bohemia to be too slow, Hans Delbrck found the "Red Prince's" eventual attack at Kniggrtz to have been in the Prussian tradition, "which, by daring to lose a battle, wins it".[88]. Rather than frontal attacks, the Prussian king tried to apply the oblique order, by which his army's strongest wing focused against the enemy's weakest wing or flank, while restraining his own weaker wing. Napoleons Men. Militrstand und Desertion im 18. [87] Moltke wanted a quick campaign in Bohemia against Austria so that Russia or France would not become involved in the Austro-Prussian war. Piety, Politics, and Enlightenment in Eighteenth Century Prussia, in The Rise of Prussia, 17001830, ed. It became vital to the development of Brandenburg-Prussia as a European power. With the exception of Army Reforms and An Army with a State these are also available for Brandenburg. Heresy must not be tolerated. Prussia has one of the following government reforms: No provinces in the Empire are under the control of a non-member state (directly or indirectly through a subject), Every province with a core of this country is owned by this country. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Busch, O. - 88.198.73.235. Recovery Centers of America is dedicated to helping patients achieve a life of recovery through evidence-based alcohol and drug addiction treatment, as well as treatment for mental health disorders. [56] Boyen and Blcher strongly supported the civilian army of the Landwehr, which was to unite military and civilian society, as an equal to the standing army. Austria tried to reclaim Silesia in the Second Silesian War. Frederick II (reigned 174086) put the newly realized strength of the Prussian state at the service of an ambitious but risky foreign policy. the other choice was " it was sparta in the morning, athens in the afternoon." - Voltaire, of Prussia /)w(\ what swanky quotes man. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves. The Prussian-style war of movement and quick strikes was well-suited for campaigns using the developed infrastructure of Western and Central Europe, such as in the wars of unification, but failed when the German Army applied it to the Soviet Union or in North Africa. The changes gave the army flexibility, precision, and a rate of fire that was mostly unequalled for that period. The Administrative Reforms of Frederick William I of Prussia, Cambridge. [31] After a few initial volley fire, the infantry was to advance quickly for a bayonet charge. The liberal and middle-class Landwehr was thus subordinated in favor of the regular army, which was composed mostly of peasantry loyal to the Hohenzollern monarchy and conservative Junkers. In 1675 Frederick William marched his troops northward and surrounded Wrangel's troops. The doctrines he espoused focused on speed and offense. [10], Frederick William built the Hohenzollern army up to a peacetime size of 7,000 and a wartime size of 15,00030,000. So a standing army was formed out of conscripts. Part of Springer Nature. It became vital to the development of Brandenburg-Prussia as a European power. He led a Military Reorganization Committee, which included Generals August von Gneisenau, Karl von Grolman, and Hermann von Boyen as well as the civilian vom Steinen. [79] The Prussian emphasis on decisive battles instead of on wars of attrition led to inexperience in siege warfare, at which the Prussians have been considered incompetent. [92] 19th-century historians saw Leuthen as one of the best examples of Auftragstaktik[93] and an early example of combined arms. 1990. "There has never been a 'war on drugs'! In the same year Boyen and Grolman drafted a law for universal conscription, by which men would successively serve in the standing army, the Landwehr and the local Landsturm until the age of 39. This was a development of the Scharnhorst concept of "March Divided, Fight United.". Bureaucracy, Aristocracy and Autocracy: The Prussian Experience 16601815, Cambridge. [32], The first garrison began construction in Berlin in 1764. The officers retained the same training, tactics and weaponry used by Frederick the Great some forty years earlier. [13] Frederick William I wore his simple blue military uniform at court, a style henceforth imitated by the rest of the Prussian court and his royal successors. The army had to get into better shape before fighting resumed in the spring. Frederick I was succeeded by his son, Frederick William I (17131740), the "Soldier-King" obsessed with the army and achieving self-sufficiency for his country. Lighter and faster cavalry were preferred over heavy cavalry; while Frederick William I had treated hussars as luxury troops, his son made them an integral part of the army. Eligible beneficiaries include Active Duty Service Members (ADSM) and their families, retired service members and their families, National Guard and Reserve members and their families, survivors, certain former spouses and others. King of Prussia, PA, March 01, 2023 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- Recovery Centers of America (RCA), a healthcare network of substance use disorder treatment facilities on the East Coast and in the Midwest, today announced an agreement to become a Humana Military participating provider. Remember, Prussia is an army with a state, not state with an army. Wilson, P.H. Austria allied with its traditional rival, France, in the Diplomatic Revolution (1756); Austria, France, and Russia were all aligned against Prussia. The independent track of the Prussian army in late 1812, in which the Prussian General Ludwig Yorck arranged for a ceasefire with the Russian army without first getting the consent of the Prussian King, also cemented the image of the Prussian army as an institution onto itself. Military System and Social Life in Old-Regime Prussia, Atlantic Highlands. It really helps out! The close coordination of military, financial, and economic affairs was complemented by Frederick William Is reorganization of the administrative system, and he came to control the whole life of the state. The reformers and much of the public called for Frederick William III to ally with the Austrian Empire in its 1809 campaign against France. The army of Prussia grew out of the united armed forces created during the reign of Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg (16401688). Epstein, K. 1966. The usefulness of music in battles was first recognized in the Thirty Years' War by the Brandenburger and Swedish armies. Recover them. . The effort to get a signed proclamation was led by Wyoming State Senator, Air Force Veteran and co-chair of the AARP Wyoming Veterans Advisory Committee, Brian Boner. Dwyer, London, 6887. But where 20 or 30 per cent was the norm elsewhere, the Prussian army regularly accounted for as much as three-quarters of public expenditure and that in times of profound peace. Although successful in outmaneuvering Frederick in 1744, the Austrians were crushed by the king himself in the Battle of Hohenfriedberg and the Battle of Soor (1745). After Sweden invaded Prussia in late 1678, Frederick William's forces expelled the Swedish invaders during the "Great Sleigh Drive" of 167879; Thomas Carlyle compared the wintertime Swedish retreat to that of Napoleon from Moscow. [9] Hohenzollern success enabled Frederick William to assume sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia in the 1657 Treaty of Wehlau, by which Brandenburg-Prussia allied itself with the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. [50] In 1813, Scharnhorst succeeded in attaching a chief of staff trained at the academy to each field commander. Blanning, T.C.W. Rosenberg, H. 1958. 1994. ; 27, 97167. In times immemorial, the Carolingian Kings ruled over the great and Holy Roman Empire. Although parliament was opposed to these actions, William maintained the new regiments with the guidance of Manteuffel. Oestreich, G. 1977. [75], During the interwar era, German officers contemplated how to apply maneuver warfare after the experiences of the Great War. Kroener and R. Prove, Paderborn, 13765. These early Prussians were related to the Latvians and Lithuanians and lived in tribes in the then heavily forested region between the lower Vistula and Neman rivers. The battlefield successes of Prussia allowed the unification of Germany, aside from Austria, in 1871 and the crowning of King William I of Prussia as William I, German Emperor. Only one army corps could be moved along one road in the same day; to put two or three corps on the same road meant that the rear corps could not be made use of in a battle at the front. Please like and subscribe to this channel if you enjoyed this Let's Play of Victoria II as Prussia. Reddit and its partners use cookies and similar technologies to provide you with a better experience. Interactive corporate website. News Corp is a global, diversified media and information services company focused on creating and distributing authoritative and engaging content and other products and services. We've now covered most of Germany's modern history, but there is an obvious piece missing - the Industrial age, when Germany truly came to prominence and built the incredible industry to back up the mighty army.Competition in Europe is fierce, the United Kingdom was the first to really understand the power industrialisation gave, and the Kaiser was not far behind. Aping the Great Powers: Frederick the Great and the Defence of Prussias International Position, 17631786, German History, 12, 286307. [80], The Great Elector practiced many of the concepts applied to the Prussian Army in later centuries, including flank attacks at Warsaw and, at Fehrbellin, the willingness to attack when outnumbered. Mittenzwei, I. 1992. /Europa Universalis IV/missions/EMP_Prussian_Missions.txt, PDXCON Like all Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, we have our eye on the throne. Finally, that military focus seemed to be widely accepted at all levels and in all corners of a Prussia whose subjects were by any discernible standard no less content than those of other states. Although the Treaty of Versailles attempted to disarm Germany, the Reichswehr discreetly maintained many of the traditions of the Prussian Army. Prussia was once famously described as \"An Army with a State\", a nod toward just how militarily powerful they were. [27], Frederick William I was succeeded by his son, Frederick II (174086). [21], Frederick William I restricted enrollment in the officer corps to Germans of noble descent and compelled the Junkers, the Prussian landed aristocracy, to serve in the army,[20] Although initially reluctant about the army, the nobles eventually saw the officer corps as its natural profession. As a result, he considered the main task of military leaders to consist in the extensive preparation of all possible outcomes. The country gets the modifier Imperial Graces for 15 years, giving the following effects: The country gets the modifier Imperial Unity for 15 years, giving the following effect: Please help with verifying or updating this section. [2] Frederick William sought assistance from France, the traditional rival of Habsburg Austria, and began receiving French subsidies. [57], During a constitutional crisis in 1819, Frederick William III recognized Prussia's adherence to the anti-revolutionary Carlsbad Decrees. For over 25 years, Humana Military has strived to create better health outcomes and simplified experiences for millions of beneficiaries across the United States through TRICARE and other military healthcare programs. Prussia was once famously described as "An Army with a State", a nod toward just how militarily powerful they were. Stein arrived in East Prussia and led the raising of a Landwehr, or militia to defend the province. Conscription among the peasantry was more firmly enforced, based on the Swedish model. Ambitious and intelligent young men began to enter the military instead of law and administration. 2019, https://eu4.paradoxwikis.com/index.php?title=Prussian_missions&oldid=146789, Articles with potentially outdated sections, Play Recovery Centers of America is excited and honored to be selected as a participating provider with Humana Military, bringing vital, evidence-based addiction treatment services to our military community, said J. Brian ONeill, Chief Executive Officer of RCA. The most significant achievement of the Great Electors son Frederick (reigned 16881713) was to secure the royal dignity for himself as Frederick I, king in Prussia, crowning himself at Knigsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) on January 18, 1701. [5] Once the elector and his army were strong enough, Frederick William was able to suppress the estates of Cleves, Mark and Prussia. [89] The Prussian (and later, German) systems were regarded as weak in intelligence, counterintelligence, and logistics, but during the First World War the German Army was often able to lay its hands on British and French battleplans. Uniforms and weaponry were standardized. The Prussian cavalry excelled during the battle, especially the Zieten Hussars. In comparison to 1806, the Prussian populace, especially the middle class, was supportive of the war, and thousands of volunteers joined the army. Gneisenau was an early proponent of Auftragstaktik,[90] and Moltke interpreted the theory as "the higher the authority, the shorter and more general" the orders;[91] considerable leeway was granted to subordinates in order to pursue the goal. It was in Moltke's Instructions for Large Unit Commanders and his concept of separated armies that we begin to see the emergence of modern German doctrine. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Conservatives halted some of the reforms, however, and the Prussian Army subsequently became a bulwark of the conservative Prussian government. Harnisch, H. 1996. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). [25] The middle class of the towns was required to quarter soldiers and enroll in the bureaucracy. To enable a successful flanking attack, he asserted that concentration could only take place after the commencement of a battle. Forrest, A. The needle guns of the Prussian infantry were highly successful against the Austrians, who were defeated at Kniggrtz. King Frederick William II and the Decline of the Prussian Army, 17881797, doctoral dissertation, University of South Carolina. [15], Frederick William I reduced the size of Frederick I's gaudy royal guard to a single regiment, a troop of taller-than-average soldiers known as the Potsdam Giants or more commonly the Lange Kerls (long fellows), which he privately funded. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in By the middle of the 14th century, the majority of the inhabitants of Prussia were German-speaking, though the Old Prussian language did not die out until the 17th century. Questions, Paradox He created the Krmpersystem, by which companies replaced 35 men monthly, allowing up to 60 extra men to be trained annually per company. In the spring of 1644, Frederick William started building a standing army through conscription to better defend his state. When the cautious king refused to support a new Prussian war, however, Schill led his hussar regiment against the occupying French, expecting to provoke a national uprising. This page was last edited on 1 November 2022, at 06:49. Armies and Warfare in Europe, 16481789, New York. McKay, D. 2001. Download preview PDF. When Frederick The Iron Cross, adopted by the German Empire and its successor states, is also still used[citation needed] as a symbol of the Bundeswehr. The liberal opposition secured the creation of a parliament, but the constitution was largely a conservative document reaffirming the monarchy's predominance. Besides Silesia, Frederick also acquired East Frisia on the North Sea coast, and later, at the First Partition of Poland in 1772, he obtained West Prussia, that is, Polish Royal Prussia, thus forming a territorial link between East (Ducal) Prussia and the rest of his domains to the west. 1993. "Where some states have an army, the Prussian Army has a state.". Palgrave Macmillan, London. The successor to the Kingdom of Prussia after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I, it continued to be the dominant state in Germany during the Weimar Republic, as it had been during the empire, even though most of . High-quality service, cost-effective platforms and progressive approaches to care drive Humana Military to be a thought leader in the industry and an essential partner to the government. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Voltaire Quote: "Where some states possess an army, the Prussian Army possesses a state." " Where some states possess an army, the Prussian Army possesses a state. Empire, we have our eye on the battlefield II, Spaen and.! Granted them greater privileges on their flintlock muskets ' firing speed and offense Prussia, 17091730, doctoral,. For a bayonet charge armed forces created during the interwar era, German: Kniglich Preuische Armee served. Political support prussia is an army with a state quote the disease of addiction.. Dow Jones Reprints at 1-800-843-0008 or www.djreprints.com. Training, tactics and weaponry used by France against the French, who involved in. 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